Sources

Last updated November 3, 2026

Every plan is built on a set of evidence reviews on how strength and muscle are built. I look for meta-analyses and controlled trials first. Where the evidence is thin, I note it here: much of this research comes from short studies of trained men, so some guidance for other groups is an informed extension of it. These are the main studies behind the plans.

Volume, frequency and effort

Schoenfeld BJ, Ogborn D, Krieger JW (2017). Dose-response relationship between weekly resistance training volume and increases in muscle mass: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Sports Sciences 35(11):1073–1082.
Schoenfeld BJ, Ogborn D, Krieger JW (2016). Effects of resistance training frequency on measures of muscle hypertrophy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine 46(11):1689–1697.
Refalo MC, Helms ER, Trexler ET, Hamilton DL, Fyfe JJ (2023). Influence of resistance training proximity-to-failure on skeletal muscle hypertrophy: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Sports Medicine 53(3):649–665.
Halperin I, Malleron T, Har-Nir I, et al. (2022). Accuracy in predicting repetitions to task failure in resistance exercise: a scoping review and exploratory meta-analysis. Sports Medicine 52:377–390.
Zourdos MC, Klemp A, Dolan C, et al. (2016). Novel resistance training-specific rating of perceived exertion scale measuring repetitions in reserve. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 30(1):267–275.

Load and equipment

Schoenfeld BJ, Grgic J, Ogborn D, Krieger JW (2017). Strength and hypertrophy adaptations between low- vs. high-load resistance training: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 31(12):3508–3523.
Dinyer TK, Byrd MT, Garver MJ, et al. (2019). Low-load vs. high-load resistance training to failure on one repetition maximum strength and body composition in untrained women. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 33(7):1737–1744.
Lopes JSS, Machado AF, Micheletti JK, et al. (2019). Effects of training with elastic resistance versus conventional resistance on muscular strength: a systematic review and meta-analysis. SAGE Open Medicine 7:2050312119831116.
Haugen ME, Vårvik FT, Larsen S, et al. (2023). Effect of free-weight vs. machine-based strength training on maximal strength, hypertrophy and jump performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation 15:103.
Kikuchi N, Nakazato K (2017). Low-load bench press and push-up induce similar muscle hypertrophy and strength gain. Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness 15(1):37–42.

Rest, recovery and sleep

Schoenfeld BJ, Pope ZK, Benik FM, et al. (2016). Longer interset rest periods enhance muscle strength and hypertrophy in resistance-trained men. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 30:1805–1812.
Grgic J, Schoenfeld BJ, Skrepnik M, Davies TB, Mikulic P (2018). Effects of rest interval duration in resistance training on measures of muscular strength: a systematic review. Sports Medicine 48:137–151.
Coleman M, Burke R, Augustin F, et al. (2024). Gaining more from doing less? The effects of a one-week deload period during supervised resistance training on muscular adaptations. PeerJ 12:e16777.
Wiewelhove T, Döweling A, Schneider C, et al. (2019). A meta-analysis of the effects of foam rolling on performance and recovery. Frontiers in Physiology 10:376.
Knowles OE, Drinkwater EJ, Urwin CS, Lamon S, Aisbett B (2018). Inadequate sleep and muscle strength: implications for resistance training. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 21:959–968.
Craven J, McCartney D, Desbrow B, et al. (2022). Effects of acute sleep loss on physical performance: a systematic and meta-analytical review. Sports Medicine 52:2669–2690.

Exercise selection

Ekstrom RA, Donatelli RA, Soderberg GL (2003). Surface electromyographic analysis of exercises for the trapezius and serratus anterior muscles. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy 33(5):247–258.